Section 5: Trends and Issues in Various Settings

Chapter 18 discusses instructional design in business and industry. Give an example of rapid prototyping and discuss how this could be used in education.

In doing research on rapid prototyping, most of the resources I found on the Internet had to do with rapid prototyping in manufacturing, particularly in creating CAD/CAM type prototypes using “printers” that create prototypes out of wax, paper, or plastic. 

I found one site which specifically addressed rapid prototyping in instructional design at http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jmargeru/prototyping/#rapid_prototyping. The web page author references a definition by Wilson, Jonassen, and Cole: Rapid prototyping. In a design process, early development of a small-scale prototype used to test out certain key features of the design. Most useful for large-scale or projects.

This web site also contains several relevant quotes from a journal article. One in particular addresses differences between rapid prototyping and traditional instructional systems design: "many traditional models emphasize early constraining of design decisions, while rapid prototyping follows the pragmatic design principle of minimum commitment, that at each stage in synthesizing a design no commitment is made beyond what is absolutely necessary to solve the problem at hand." (p. 37)

Tripp, S. D., & Bichelmeyer, B. (1990). Rapid protoyping: An alternative instructional design strategy. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 38(1), 31-44.

Building paper airplanes is often used as an analogy for rapid prototyping. The web site mentioned above references an example of developing a software program to tutor ESL students in English grammar. So how can we as educators use rapid prototyping? It's not as difficult as it sounds. One example would be developing a PowerPoint presentation, which can start as a barebones presentation. Both the design and content can then be modified and expanded as it is continuously used. Another example would be a project-based small group activity. A teacher can start with a very basic design for the group-based project, and then modify the materials and/or activities each time until the project design is refined into a more finished product.

Here is a good diagram illustrating rapid prototyping process in Instructional Design from http://www.ediscover.org/InstrucDesign.html.
 

Chapter 19 discusses instructional design opportunities in military education and training environments. I had the opportunity to work two summers in Orlando on a faculty fellowship in the advanced distributed learning lab (ADL) discussed in the book and saw first hand some of the constraints placed on some of the tools that could be used for learning. Pretend you are hired as a consultant for the military. They want to use technology in its training, but electronic access is not always available. Using the Full Spectrum diagram, what alternatives could you suggest for a successful program?

Photo: Itronix (http://www.ediscover.org/InstrucDesign.html)

The Marine Corps solution (on p. 194 of our textbook) could be modified by using a similar setup with rugged laptops loaded with standalone software that could be modified by the instructor, and infrared or bluetooth connectivity between laptops so that instructor could transfer modified documents to users. This could be implemented simply using word processing and/or CAD software and Adobe Acrobat.

Without any electronic access, the trainers could use a paper-based 3-ring system. This could be similar to notebooks we used for engineering specifications at a company where I used to work. When MasterSpec issued quarterly updates, they shipped only the pages that were changed or added, along with specific instructions on where and how to delete pages, add pages, or substitute pages. Trainers could use a similar system with individual pieces of equipment or procedures organized into sections that could be easily removed or replaced as needed.

Chapter 21 looks at radical educational change in P-12 settings. I visited the Chugach School District in Alaska and know Richard DeLorenzo very well. I can assure you that this change can occur in our schools. Review the Step-Up-To-Excellence methodology and the GSTE. Outline a staff development activity that will introduce both methodologies to your colleagues. 

I am very familiar with Decatur MSD in Indianapolis which is highlighted in the GSTE design because my nieces attended there, and it has a very good reputation in the area.

In setting up a staff development activity to introduce GSTE and SUTE, I would first introduce some of these success stories. It would be very effective is maybe a video interview could be obtained highlighting the results attained through these programs.

I would try to use something visual to outline the GSTE, such as a PowerPoint and/or concept mapping the GSTE. When it comes to discussing the core values I would maybe give a few examples, but not an exhaustive list. Instead, after introducing the other components, such as revised discrete events and continuous events, I would have participants come up with their own core value lists in small groups.

After introducing the five steps of SUTE, I would have participants brainstorm of possible cluster and site improvement teams which would work for their district or campus. I would also get their ideas on what types of things OLN and/or on-track seminars should address

Navigating through the ranks of a faculty member in higher education can be tricky. A good institution has support for its faculty and provides faculty development opportunities to grow and learn. Research three different university offices for faculty development. Answer the following questions for each office:

• What are the different names used for faculty development?
• What division is it under?
• What services does it offer?
• How often are programs given and what specifically are they?
  

Ball State University – Muncie, Indiana

http://cms.bsu.edu/Gateways/FacultyAndStaff.aspx

Professional Development

http://cms.bsu.edu/About/AdministrativeOffices/ITAS.aspx

Teaching, Assessment, Scholarship

http://cms.bsu.edu/About/AdministrativeOffices/ITAS/Workshops/SchedRegister.aspx

Spring Workshops

IUPUI – Indiana University/Purdue University at Indianapolis, Indiana

http://academicaffairs.iupui.edu/faculty-advancement/

Faculty Advancement

• Career Stages Support
  • Preparing Future Faculty
  • New Faculty Experience
  • New Faculty Profiles
  • Pre-retirement Support
• FACET – IU Teaching Academy
• Faculty Honors and Recognition
  • IUPUI Campus Awards
  • Indiana University Awards
  • External Awards
• Leadership Development
  • New Dean Orientation
  • Department Chair Group
  • Associate Dean Group
  • Program Materials
• Promotion and Tenure
• Research Development
• Sabbatical
• Work & Life Resources
  

Purdue University – W. Lafayette, Indiana

http://www.purdue.edu/purdue/information_for/professional_devel.html

Professional Development

• Center for Instructional Excellence
• Computer Training
• Faculty Development Opportunities
• General Training
• Teaching Academy
  

Section 4 Human Performance Technology

Chapter 14 discusses the concept of the evolution of human performance improvement. Several sections of chapter 14 present a variety of non instructional solutions to performance problems. Identify a performance problem in your area of work and provide a non instructional solution to solve the problem.

In 2005-2006, I worked as a Reading Intervention Aide with grades K-2.  I was working with small groups of children in a closet (literally, with storage stacked all around our little table) .  We were provided with very little instructional materials.  Many of the students did not want to be there, and did not want to behave during the reading remediation exercises.  I came up with two low-cost solutions, which helped as an incentive for the students to do their work and to behave properly in our tiny little workspace.  One could be considered partially an instructional and partially a non-instructional solution.  I purchased some inexpensive reading games and colorful letter sound flash cards from a teacher supply store (The games were a word bingo game and one that matched letter sounds with brightly colored game pieces).  If the students completed their "boring" work (worksheets, etc.), they could work with the games.  They were learning the same content as with the other materials, but these materials were colorful manipulatives and were presented as a "game" instead of "work".  The second non-instructional solution was just plain bribery (or, ahem, "incentives").  I created a prize bucket with colorful pencils, stickers, and other low-cost toys.  The students could earn marks for good behavior, but could also lose marks for misbehaving or not finishing their work.  I gave them a small margin of error so that they would not be discouraged by failure early in the week.  On Friday, if they had the appropriate number of good marks, each student could pick something from the prize bucket to take home.  It cost me less than $5 a week, dramatically improved student behavior, and I had other students asking if they could be in my "class" so they too could play games and earn prizes.

Chapter 15 presents several definitions of electronic performance support systems. In addition to these definitions, locate a few more and indicate your preference explaining why you prefer it. Additionally, describe why you believe EPSS have not been widely used and if they are more likely be become more prevalent in the future.

I found several definitions online:

http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=EPSS&i=42707,00.asp

(Electronic Performance Support System) A computer system that provides quick assistance and information without requiring prior training to use it. It may incorporate all forms of multimedia delivery as well as AI techniques such as expert systems and natural language recognition.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_performance_support_systems

In Electronic Performance Support Systems, published in 1991, Gloria Gery defined EPSS as:
an integrated electronic environment that is available to and easily accessible by each employee and is structured to provide immediate, individualized on-line access to the full range of information, software, guidance, advice and assistance, data, images, tools, and assessment and monitoring systems to permit job performance with minimal support and intervention by others.

Also in 1991, Barry Raybould gave a shorter definition:
a computer-based system that improves worker productivity by providing on-the-job access to integrated information, advice, and learning experiences.

From a business perspective, a former Nortel Networks executive, William Bezanson (2002) provides a definition linked to application usability and organizational results:
A performance support system provides just-in-time, just enough training, information, tools, and help for users of a product or work environment, to enable optimum performance by those users when and where needed, thereby also enhancing the performance of the overall business.

I think one of the reasons that EPSS systems have not been widely adopted yet is because it takes a great deal of time to collect, organize and synthesize the information that will be included.  It also takes time to design the interface of how the information will be accessed.  I have been working as a computer tech for my district for five years.  However, we have absolutely NO written record of procedures or information.  I used to jot down notes as I learned things by word of mouth and trial and error.  I am currently working those notes into Google Documents, which I am now sharing with the other techs.  This is a very rudimentary form of EPSS, but I hope that this will be the basis for an EPSS system that would aid computer technical support and assure that we are all following the same procedures (in many cases, we are not).

Knowledge management is the way we manage information, share that information, and use it.
Organizations, such as schools, are full of information/data and we must organize that data in a way that we can make sense of it. We use data to make decisions and good data=good decision making. Identify a real or hypothetical problem in your line of work. How might a blended learning approach, including the use of a knowledge management system, be use to solve the problem?

I believe that our Instructional Technologists (with whom I work closely) are developing a blended solution to knowledge management when it comes to training our teachers to use the various programs and technologies the district implements.  They offer in-person one-on-one and small group training, but they are also creating Sites through our Google Apps which link to the training materials which were used in the in-person training, as well as to supplemental materials for further exploration.  This is a real help to our training issues, because many times there is a gap between when the training occurs and when the programs are implemented, and so there is a loss of knowledge.  Of course, teachers tend to misplace hard copy handouts as well.  Having this information readily accessible in an electronic format supplements and enhances the training.

Describe the types of informal learning you have been exposed to in your adult life. What was the purpose? What was the experience like? Was it engaging? Social? What role did you play? What role did the instructor play?

As I was reading the chapter about informal learning, I was repeatedly reminded of the Indianapolis Children's Museum.  My mother and I homeschooled my two older boys for a couple of years, and we made many, many trips to the museum.  We continued to visit the museum when we lived in Indianapolis, even when my boys went back to public school, and brought their cousins and younger sister.  My kids loved the Children's Museum so much that they still ask to visit every time we go back to Indianapolis (both my boys are college-age now).  So, at first I thought maybe this is not a great example of informal learning in MY adult life…but then on second thought, I think it is.  At the Children's Museum, not only my children, but also my mother and I (as the homeschool "teachers") could consult with experts and direct my boys to presentations in science, history, art, etc.  The information available was colorful, engaging, hands-on and interesting for both children and adults.  Each exhibit could be enjoyed on a surface level, but could also be explored in detail.  The museum had in-depth resources available for almost everything, including working science labs and an on-site branch of the Marion County Public Library.  There were also other homeschool parents, public and private school teachers on field trips with their classes, and museum interpreters to interact with informally during our visits.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gklMLu91RPA
ScienceWorks at the Indianapolis Children's Museum in the 90s





Here's a link to the current TCM exhibit about Modern Egypt: http://www.childrensmuseum.org/takemethere/

The Indianapolis Children's Museum is one of the best examples of informal learning I know!

Section 3

Chapter 10 discusses evaluation in instructional design and provides you with two evaluation models, the CIPP and Kirkpatrick models for evaluation. Search for at least two other models used for evaluation and summarize these models. Describe how you would use them to evaluate your instruction.

The Input/Process/Output Model was developed in 1990 by David S. Bushnell. It is considered to be a process-driven training evaluation model, related to the CIPP model. It was adopted in 2000 by IBM as their corporate education strategy. It first looks at input factors, “such as trainee qualifications, program design, instructor quality and qualifications, materials quality, facilities, and equipment”. 

It then examines training planning, development and delivery. It then looks at the outcomes, both short-term and long-term.

The Training Validation Systems Model was developed in 1994 by Jac Fitz-Enz. Its four components are Situation, Intervention, Impact and Value. 

Situation: Ascertain current levels of performance and define desired future levels.

Intervention: Examine the reasons for the gap between current and future levels of performance and determine if training is the solution

Impact: Evaluate the difference between pre-training and post-training performance.

Value: “measuring differences in quality, productivity, service, or sales, all of which can be expressed in terms of dollars.”

Resources:

Russ-Eft, D., Bober, M., de la Teja, I., Foxon, M., Koszalka, T. (2008). Evaluator Competencies: Standards for the Practice of Evaluation in Organizations. Retrieved February 9, 2011 from http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/91/07879959/0787995991.pdf. 

Note: Several different practice-oriented and process-driven training evaluation models are highlighted in this excerpt.

Eseryel, D.. (2002). Approaches to Evaluation of Training: Theory & Practice. In Educational Technology & Society 5 (2) 2002 Retrieved February 9, 2011, from http://www.ifets.info/journals/5_2/eseryel.html.

Note: This is a scholarly work comparing Kirkpatrick, CIPP, IPO and TVS models. Has a helpful table showing the four side by side.

Grice, R. (2010). Flow chart of input-output approach to training evaluation. In How to measure training effectiveness. Retrieved February 9, 2011, from http://www.rogergrice.co.uk/Measuring%20training%20effectiveness.pdf.

Note: The bottom of Page 3 has a flow chart illustrating the IPO model.

I don't have a lot of experience in designing or evaluating my instruction yet. But I think the gist of what both these models boils down is similar to planning a road trip (which I've done many times!) You have to figure out where you (and your students are), where you want to go, and what's the best way to get there. Then afterwards, you assess to figure out whether you got there in a timely manner, and if not, why not? Was there construction, unexpected weather, route too boring? Then I think you go back and figure out a better route for next time, and if maybe you should take the van instead of the compact car. :)

Think about a technological innovation within your social system that was recently introduced (social system = place of work, home, etc.). Any innovation has what is known as perceived attributes - relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability. Describe these attributes of the innovation and which of the attributes assisted and/or hindered adoption of the innovation. For example, was it not compatible with the existing beliefs of the system or was it overly complex to use or understand?

Our district recently transitioned (and is actually still in the process of transitioning) from using Novell Groupwise (a network-based email system) to using Google Mail (a web-based email system). The biggest hurdle I encountered as a tech support person in the district is that users expected the system to be hard and unfriendly to use, and the transition to be difficult and filled with technical nightmares. Once people were trained and actually began to use the system, they were pleasantly surprised and relieved. However, I had many users who actually insisted that I sit with them while they attempted to sign in and retrieve their e-mail or send an e-mail (not because they had tried and failed, but because they were afraid to try it without backup tech support). The culture of the district and past experience created an expectation that this was going to be difficult and unwieldy, when in fact, the new system is easier and less complicated for users, who were pleasantly surprised.

Chapters 12 & 13 focus on project management and how to manage projects when resources are scarce. You have been assigned to develop a series of professional development sessions focusing on technology use in the classroom for teachers. How will you use Situational Leadership to facilitate this project?

Three Factors affecting Situational Leadership

1. The amount of guidance and direction a leader gives

2. The amount of socio-emotional support a leader provides

3. The readiness level followers exhibit in performing a specific task, function or objective.

Four Phases of Situational Leadership

1. Directive, detailed and supervisory without being overbearing or demanding

2. Explain and clarify decisions and reward improvements (secure buy-in of process and product)

3. Focusing on results and making sure your team is rewarded for effort and production

4. Less as director and more as monitor. Step back and let team work.

Two things that I think are very important pieces of Situational Leadership are actually Phases 2 and 3. Phase 2 is about securing buy-in of the process and product. I think for any learners, but especially with teachers who would be participating in a professional development session, it is important for them to see WHY it is worth their effort to learn or use the technology, and HOW it is going to help them professionally (or help them help their students). When it comes to Phase 3, sometimes “simple bribery” will get you everywhere and rewards participants for their efforts. I have worked very closely with the Instructional Technologists in our district, and I know sometimes they will provide coffee and snacks or a little giveaways, such as a flash drive or package of software templates, to those who come and participate in the training sessions. That helps the training session be more enjoyable, and that little bit seems to motivate teachers to come and to have a good attitude. That is important when many of them are already overwhelmed and overworked.

Section 2 - Learning Theories Etc.

Identify a specific learning goal and how you would incorporate two learning theories highlighted in Chapter 4 to achieve this goal:

The specific learning goal I will be addressing is in the context of a Career and Technology class called Computer Technician.  This particular goal is to teach students how to upgrade the RAM in a desktop computer.  The two learning theories I have chosen to concentrate on are Cognitive Information Processing and Situated Learning. 

In Cognitive Learning Processing, there are three important steps in order for learning to occur:  Attention, Encoding and Retrieval.  The first would be to get the students’ attention.  I would illustrate with either two real desktop computers, or by using a video, the difference in speed and performance that a RAM upgrade can effect.  I would probably illustrate that using a graphics-based game or multimedia presentation. I think the application of the second theory (as described below) could be aligned with the encoding step, where students actually perform the activity, first in guided practice, and then in unassisted practice.  The retrieval step would be to have the students be able to perform the task without either verbal or written cues.

The second theory of Situated Learning incorporates the idea of Communities of Practice, or a mentor-apprentice typed of learning environment.  I would utilize this by first showing the students how to change out the RAM, then allowing them to do it themselves with guided verbal or written instruction, and then finally allow them to perform the operation unaided.

Find a reference (other than the book) that describes Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction.  The create a table or chart that compares and contrasts those events with the first principles described in Chapter 7 and describe how you would apply each of the first principles to the goal you’ve developed from the first activity in this reflection.

Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction, (with Examples for using Kidspiration software)

http://my-ecoach.com/project.php?id=12152&project_step=28465

Chart comparing and contrasting 9 events with First Principles:

http://www.mywebspiration.com/view/766954a4b83

The steps and goals I described above would nicely align with the first principles.  First, the activity is problem-centered:  how to improve the computer’s performance by upgrading the RAM.  The activation and demonstration would be very closely aligned for this particular task, with a general description and demonstration of the task to be performed.  The integration would involve students performing the task with either verbal or visual cueing, and then finally performing the task on their own.

Develop a new goal or using the one you’ve already developed, briefly describe how you might use the whole-task approach, scaffolding, and mathemagenic methods to help students learn to perform a task.

The  goal I would use for this particular scenario would be one of troubleshooting video problems in a computer and peripheral device, which would be a common one for the Computer Technician class.  This would lend itself very well to the Mathemagenic model.  I liked the examples on p. 76 involving training and troubleshooting a multitude of malfunctions in randomized order.  This is a very effective strategy because it mimics real-life situations that computer technicians would encounter.  The whole task would be to restore the computer to working condition.  Scaffolding could occur as the instructor helps the students investigate the possible causes and solutions for the video problem (cable, monitor, video card, power supply, driver….)

You have been hired to design a course for a topic in your area of specialization.  Using Table 9.2 as a template, what would you incorporate into each subcategory to motivate learners?

For this activity, I decided to integrate another content area (Social Studies or History) in with Technology Applications. 

Sally Morris

ETEC 561

Learning Activity:            Students will create a video interview with a “historic personality”.

ATTENTION
Perceptual Arousal:	What can I do to capture their interest?	Teacher will show students two examples of student-created videos. Ask students if they would like to create a similar project and what would they need to accomplish it? Have students come up with ideas for personalities to interview.
Inquiry Arousal:	How can I stimulate an attitude of inquiry?
Variability:	How can I use a variety of tactics to maintain their attention?

RELEVANCE
Goal Orientation:	How can I best meet my learner’s needs? (Do I know their needs?)	Students will be assigned to groups and will decide which responsibilities each group member will have: writing, directing, costumes, filming, etc. Teacher will find out which students have experience using a video camera and have them serve as peer tutors.  Teacher will also review use of built-in camera on computers if not enough video cameras are available. Teacher will let students experiment briefly using video before filming their projects and will assist where necessary.
Motive Matching:	How and when can I provide my learners with appropriate choices, responsibilities, and influences?
Familiarity:	How can I tie the instruction to the learners’ experiences?

CONFIDENCE
Learning Requirements:	How can I assist in building a positive expectation for success?	Teacher will provide students with a checklist for duty assignments, production process, etc.  Teacher will stress importance of research planning and help students assess their progress.
Success Opportunities:	How will the learning experience support or enhance the students’ beliefs in their competence?
Personal Control:	How will the learners clearly know their success is based upon their efforts and abilities?

SATISFACTION
Intrinsic Reinforcement:	How can I provide meaningful opportunities for learners to use their newly acquired knowledge/skill?	Students will receive a DVD with the final performances of each group to take home and share with their family. Students will be encouraged to come up with ideas on how they could use this “video report” technique in other classes and subjects.
Extrinsic Rewards:	What will provide reinforcement to the learners’ successes?
Equity:	How can I assist the students in anchoring a positive feeling about their accomplishments?

Finally, after completing these activities, discuss the benefits of engaging in design research:

Participating in design research helps educators to prepare learning content that helps to motivate learners by getting their Attention, giving them Confidence, showing them Relevance, and helping them to feel Satisfaction at accomplishing the goal.  I think that Relevance is one of the most important parts of this puzzle, especially for secondary students.  If they can see how the lesson or activity ties in with something they will encounter in the future in college or the workplace, it definitely increases their interest and motivation.  Conversely, if they do not see any relevance in the task or activity, they are not likely to be interested, even if you get their attention, and try to encourage confidence and satisfaction.

Extras:

The parts of cognitive information processing include attention, encoding, and retrieval.  All three of these pieces are very difficult for students with ADHD.  This article talks extensively about working memory and executive function.

http://research.aboutkidshealth.ca/teachadhd/abc/chapter3

Another resource on situated learning details of Communities of Practices, which bring the mentor/apprenticeship relationship back into learning and teaching.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_practice

Cute video highlighting Constructivist Learning.  The video quality is poor, but the sound is good and it makes some great points.

http://www1.teachertube.com/viewVideo.php?video_id=15076&title=Instructional_Theory